Tag Archives: progesterone

Menstruation

The endometrium is under the influence of sex steroids that circulate in females of reproductive age. Sequential exposure to oestrogen and progesterone will result in cellular proliferation and differentiation, in preparation for the implantation of an embryo in the event of pregnancy, followed by regular bleeding in response to progesterone withdrawal if the corpus luteum regresses. During the ovarian follicular phase, the endometrium undergoes proliferation (the ‘proliferative phase’); during the ovarian luteal phase, it has its ‘secretory phase’. Decidualization, an irreversible process  that develop a specialized glandular endometrium, and apoptosis arise when there is no embryo implantation. Menstruation (day 1) is the shedding of the ‘dead’ endometrium and ceases as the endometrium regenerates (which normally happens by day 5–6 of the cycle).

The endometrium is composed of two layers, the uppermost of which is shed during menstruation. A fall in current levels of oestrogen and progesterone for about 2 weeks after ovulation leads to reduce of tissue fluid, vasoconstriction of spiral arterioles and distal ischaemia. This results in tissue breakdown, and loss of the upper layer along with bleeding from fragments of the remaining arterioles is seen as menstrual bleeding. Enhanced fibrinolysis reduces clotting.

The effects of oestrogen and progesterone on the endometrium can be reproduced artificially, for example in patients taking the combined oral contraceptive pill or hormone replacement therapy who experience a withdrawal bleed during their pill free week each month.

Vaginal bleeding will cease after 5–10 days as arterioles vasoconstrict and the endometrium begins to regenerate. Haemostasis in the uterine endometrium is different from haemostasis elsewhere in the body as it does not involve the processes of clot formation and fibrosis.

In rare cases, the tissue breakdown and vasoconstriction does not occur correctly and the endometrium may develop scarring which goes on to inhibit its function. This is known as ‘Asherman’s syndrome’. The endocrine influences in menstruation are clear. However, the paracrine mediators less so. Prostaglandin F2a, endothelin-1 and platelet activating factor (PAF) are vasoconstrictors which are produced within the endometrium and are thought likely to be involved in vessel constriction, both initiating and controlling menstruation. They may be balanced by the effect of vasodilator agents, such as prostaglandin E2, prostacyclin (PGI) and nitric oxide (NO), which are also produced by the endometrium. There is a research shows that progesterone withdrawal increases endometrial prostaglandin (PG) synthesis and reduces PG metabolism. The COX-2 enzyme and chemokines are involved in PG synthesis and this is likely to be the target of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents used for the treatment of heavy and painful periods.

Endometrial repair involves both glandular and stromal regeneration and angiogenesis to reconstitute the endometrial vasculature. VEGF and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) are found within the endometrium and both are powerful angiogenic agents. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) appears to be responsible for mediation of oestrogen-induced glandular and stromal regeneration. Other growth factors, such as transforming growth factors (TGFs) and IGFs, and the interleukins may also be important.

Greater understanding of mediators of menstruation is important in the search for medications to control heavy and painful periods. Mefenamic acid is a PG synthetase inhibitor which is widely used as a treatment for heavy menstrual bleeding. It is believed to act by increasing the ratio of the vasoconstrictor PGF2a to the vasodilator PGE2. Mefenamic acid reduces menstrual loss by a mean value of 20–25 per cent in women with very heavy bleeding, and further more effective agents are still being sought.

Treatment for soft erection

How Do Birth Control Pills Affect The Body?

The first birth control pills were produced around 50 years ago and they were received very well by the public, especially among couples that were afraid of unwanted pregnancy. However these pills can affect on almost everything on your body, from the muscles and the brain to the sex drive.

These birth control pills work in a way that deceives the body with the help of artificial female hormones like estrogen and progesterone. They prevent the appearance of ovulation or in other words they stop the release of eggs. The process sounds very simple but the truth is that all those hormones are making a lot more than prevention of pregnancy.

Recent studies have shown that birth control pills can affect appearance, but not that much as previously because the new types of pills are having low levels of hormones and they are significantly improved. This is a short list of things that are usually affected by birth control pills.

Bones

Some studies suggest that taking birth control pills can lower the density of the spine, especially if those pills have low levels of estrogen in them. Natural estrogen stimulates the growth of bone tissue and pills maintain the normal level of estrogen. What is still uncertain is what happens when someone decides to stop taking those pills. However there is no proof that birth control pills cause any diseases related to the bones such as osteoporosis.

Cancer 

The link between breast cancer and birth control pills is still unclear. Few studies have shown different results and some suggest that there is a link while others suggest that there is absolutely no link between breast cancer and these pills. When it comes to cancer you should always be aware of family history of the disease, to consult a gynecologist or other doctors that can help you prevent it. What is interesting is that some scientist claim that women who take birth control pills lower their chances of getting uterine and ovarian cancer.

Sex Drive

It is well known that birth control pills reduce the level of testosterone in the body. Luckily, some women have high level of testosterone and taking pills does not affect their sexual desire. If you think that your sex drive is lowered because of the pills, consult a gynecologist who will look for another way to protect you against pregnancy.

Increased Weight

In the past there were cases where birth control pills made women gain weight while taking them. The main cause for this was the high level of estrogen which prevented the kidneys to excrete water from the body and what is interesting is that they have also stimulated a growth of the breasts. Modern birth control pills have low level of hormones (including estrogen) and don’t cause weight gain. Besides that they are even more effective when it comes to prevention of pregnancy compared to the pills from the past.

Skin

These pills can help you with acne and pimples because of the artificial estrogen that they contain. The estrogen reduces the level of testosterone which is responsible for the production of sebum that clogs pores and causes the formation of pimples.